Difference between revisions of "Memory Speak"

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#REDIRECT [[Memory]]
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Memory Explained </font></h2>
 
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<div align="left">
 
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<table bgcolor="#c0c0c0" border="0" cellpadding="0"
 
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cellspacing="0" width="100%">
 
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<tbody>
 
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<tr>
 
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<td align="left" valign="top" width="50%">
 
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<ul>
 
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<li>
 
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<div align="left"><font
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#how">How Memory Works</a></font></div>
 
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</li>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#components">Module Components</a></font></li>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#type">Memory Types</a></font></li>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#technology">Technology</a></font></li>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#evolution">Evolution Chart</a></font></li>
 
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</ul>
 
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</td>
 
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<td align="left" valign="top" width="50%">
 
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<ul>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#error">Error Checking</a></font></li>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#speed">Measuring Speed</a></font></li>
 
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<li>
 
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<div align="left"><font
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#adding">Adding Memory</a></font></div>
 
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</li>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#recommended">Recommended Memory</a></font></li>
 
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</ul>
 
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</td>
 
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</tr>
 
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</tbody>
 
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</table>
 
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</div>
 
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<p>&nbsp;</p>
 
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<h3 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#top"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0"
 
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height="16" width="17"></a> <font color="#000080"><a name="how"><font
 
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color="#003399">How Memory Works</font></a></font></font><font
 
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color="#000080" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="how"></a></font></h3>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In order to enable
 
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computers to work faster, there are several types of memory available
 
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today. Within a single computer there is no longer just one type of
 
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memory. Because the types of memory relate to speed, it is important to
 
−
understand the differences when comparing the components of a computer.
 
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So get your memory ready as the following will explain what all those
 
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crazy abbreviations mean.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><i>But first,
 
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here is a brief description of how memory works.</i></b></font></p>
 
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<blockquote>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">All actual
 
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computing starts with the the <b>CPU</b> (Central Processing Unit).</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The <b><a
 
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name="chipset"></a>chipset</b> supports the CPU and contains several <b>controllers
 
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</b>that control how information travels between the CPU and
 
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other components in the PC.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The <b><a
 
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name="memorycontroller"></a>memory controller</b> is part of the
 
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chipset and establishes the information flow between memory and the CPU.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A <b><a name="bus"></a>bus</b>
 
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is a data path that consists of parallel wires and connects the CPU,
 
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memory and other devices. The bus architecture determines how much and
 
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how fast data can move around the <b>motherboard</b>.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The<b> memory bus</b>
 
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goes from the <a href="#memorycontroller">memory controller</a> to the
 
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computer's memory sockets. Newer systems have a <b>frontside bus</b>
 
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(FSB) from the CPU to main memory and a <b>backside bus</b> (BSB) from
 
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the memory controller to L2 cache.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i><b>For the PC
 
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to get information...</b></i></font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The CPU sends a
 
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request to the memory controller to memory and gets a report back of
 
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when the information will be available. This cycle can vary in length
 
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according to memory speed as well as other factors, such as bus speed.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Residing on the
 
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motherboard, the <b><a name="clock"></a>system clock</b> sends a
 
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signal to all components, just like a metronome ticking. Each click of
 
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the clock represents a clock cycle. A clock running at 100Mhz
 
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represents 100 million clock cycles per second. Every action is timed
 
−
by the clock where different actions require a different number of
 
−
clock cycles.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Many people assume
 
−
that the speed of the processor is the speed of the computer. Most of
 
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the time, the system bus and other components run at different speeds. <b>Because
 
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all information processed by the CPU is written or read from memory,
 
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the performance of a system is dramatically affected by how fast
 
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information can travel between the CPU and memory. Therefore, faster
 
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memory technology contributes greatly to the overall system performance.</b></font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><a name="cache"></a>Cache
 
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memory</b> is a relatively small amount (normally less than 1 MB) of
 
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high speed memory and resides very close to the CPU. It is designed to
 
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supply the CPU with the most frequently requested data. It takes a
 
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fraction of the time, compared to normal memory, to access cache memory.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The concept is
 
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that 20% of the time, what is needed is in cache. The cache memory
 
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tracks instructions, putting the most frequent used instruction at the
 
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top of the list. Once the cache is full, the lowest need is dropped.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Today, most cache
 
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memory is incorporated in the CPU. It can also be located just outside
 
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of the CPU. Cache that is closest to the CPU is labeled <b>Level 1</b>,
 
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the next closest <b>Lever 2</b>, etc.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><a
 
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name="interleave"></a>Interleaving</b> is a process in which the CPU
 
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alternates between two or more memory banks. Every time the CPU
 
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addresses a memory bank, the bank needs about one clock cycle to reset.
 
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The CPU can save processing time by addressing a second bank while the
 
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first bank is resetting.</font></p>
 
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</blockquote>
 
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<h3 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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href="#top"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0"
 
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height="16" width="17"></a> <a name="components"></a><font
 
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color="#003399">Module Components</font></font></h3>
 
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<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="pcb"></a>PCB (Printed
 
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Circuit Board)</font></h4>
 
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<p align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The
 
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green board that holds the memory chips is made up of several layers.
 
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Each layer contains <b><a href="#traces">traces</a></b> and <b>circuitry</b>
 
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to control the movement of data. Usually, higher quality memory modules
 
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use more layers. The more layers, the more space there is between
 
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traces. With more space between traces, the module has less chance of
 
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noise interference and is more reliable.</font></p>
 
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<h4><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="traces"></a>T<font
 
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color="#006600">races (Internal Trace Layer)</font></font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Think of traces as
 
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roads that data travels on. The width and curvature as well as the
 
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distance between affect both the speed and reliability.</font></p>
 
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<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Contact
 
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Fingers</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The contact fingers
 
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(connections or leads) are used to plug the memory chips into the
 
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module. Contacts can either be <b>tin</b> or <b>gold</b>. Gold is a
 
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better conductor than tin, but more expensive. <font color="#ff0000">To
 
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help avoid corrosion, It's always best to match the metal of the module
 
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to the metal of the socket.</font></font></p>
 
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<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Chip
 
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Packaging</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This is the material
 
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coating around the actual silicon. Today's most common packaging are. .
 
−
.</font></p>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h4><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DIP (Dual In-Line
 
−
Package)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This type of
 
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packaging was used when memory was installed directly on the computer's
 
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system board. It installed into holes extending into the surface of the
 
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<a href="#pcb">PCB</a> and could either be soldered or inserted
 
−
into sockets.</font></p>
 
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<h4><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SOJ (Small
 
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Outline J-Lead)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This type of
 
−
packaging was used for surface mount components where they mounted
 
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directly onto the surface of the <a href="#pcb">PCB</a>.</font></p>
 
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<h4><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TSOP (Thin Small
 
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Outline Package)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This is also a
 
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surface mount design and was first used to make thin credit card
 
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modules for notebook computers.</font></p>
 
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<h4><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSP (Chip Scale
 
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Package)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSP doesn't use
 
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pins to connect to the board. It uses electrical connections to the
 
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board on the underside of the package. <a href="#rimm">RDRAM</a> chips
 
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utilize this type of packaging.</font></p>
 
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</blockquote>
 
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<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Chip
 
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Stacking</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">For higher capacity
 
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modules, it is necessary to stack chips on top of one another. Stacking
 
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can be internally (not visible) or externally (visible).</font></p>
 
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<h3><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#top"><img
 
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src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0" height="16"
 
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width="17"></a> <a name="type"></a><font color="#003399">Memory Types</font></font></h3>
 
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<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="simm"></a>SIMM (<b>Single
 
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In-line Memory Modules</b>)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> SIMMs are used to
 
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store a single row of <a href="#dram">DRAM</a>, <a href="#edo">EDO</a>
 
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or <a href="#bedo">BEDO</a> chips where the module is soldered onto a <a
 
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href="#pcb">PCB</a>. One SIMM can contain several chips. When you add
 
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more memory to a computer, most likely you are adding a SIMM.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The first SIMMs
 
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transferred 8 bits of data at a time and contained 30 pins. When CPU's
 
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began to read 32-bit chunks, a wider SIMM was developed and contained
 
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72 pins.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">72 pin SIMMS are
 
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3/4" longer than 30 pin SIMMs and have a notch in the lower middle of
 
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the PCB. 72 pin SIMMs install at a slight angle.</font></p>
 
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<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="dimm"></a>DIMM (<b>Dual
 
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In-line Memory Modules</b>)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> DIMMs allow the
 
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ability to have two rows of <a href="#dram">DRAM</a>, <a href="#edo">EDO</a>
 
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or <a href="#bedo">BEDO</a> chips. They are able to contain twice as
 
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much memory on the same size circuit board. DIMMs contain 168 pins and
 
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transfer data in 64 bit chunks.</font></p>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DIMMs install
 
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straight up and down and have two notches on the bottom of the <a
 
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href="#pcb">PCB</a>.</font></p>
 
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<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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name="sodimm"></a>SO DIMM (Small Outline DIMM)</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SO DIMMs are
 
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commonly used in notebooks and are smaller than normal <a href="#dimm">DIMMs</a>.
 
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There are two types of SO DIMMs. Either 72 pins and a transfer rate of
 
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32 bits or 144 pins with a transfer rate of 64 bits.</font></p>
 
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<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="rimm"></a>RDRAM - RIMM</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Rambus, Inc, in
 
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conjunction with Intel has created new technology, <b>Direct RDRAM</b>,
 
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to increase the access speed for memory. RIMMs appeared on motherboards
 
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sometime during 1999. The in-line memory modules are called RIMMs. They
 
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have 184 pins and provide 1.6 GB per second of peak bandwidth in 16 bit
 
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chunks. As chip speed gets faster, so does the access to memory and the
 
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amount of heat produced. An aluminum sheath, called a heat spreader,
 
−
covers the module to protect the chips from overheating.</font></p>
 
−
<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
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name="sorimm"></a>SO RIMM</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Similar in
 
−
appearance to a <a href="#sodimm">SO DIMM</a> and uses Rambus
 
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technology.</font></p>
 
−
<h3><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#top"><img
 
−
src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0" height="16"
 
−
width="17"></a> <a name="technology"></a><font color="#003399">Technology</font></font></h3>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="dram"></a>DRAM (<b>Dynamic
 
−
Random Access Memory)</b></font></h4>
 
−
<p align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">One of
 
−
the most common types of computer memory (RAM). It can only hold data
 
−
for a short period of time and must be refreshed periodically. DRAMs
 
−
are measured by storage capability and access time.</font></p>
 
−
<ul>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Storage is rated
 
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in megabytes (8 MB, 16 MB, etc).</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Access time is
 
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rated in nanoseconds (60ns, 70ns, 80ns, etc) and represents the amount
 
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of time to save or return information. With a 60ns DRAM, it would
 
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require 60 billionths of a second to save or return information. <font
 
−
color="#ff0000">The lower the nanospeed, the faster the memory
 
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operates.</font></font></li>
 
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<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DRAM chips
 
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require <strong>two CPU wait states </strong>for each execution.</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Can only execute
 
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either a read or write operation at one time.</font></li>
 
−
</ul>
 
−
<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
name="fpm"></a>FPM (Fast Page Mode)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At one time, this
 
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was the most common and was often just referred to as <a href="#dram">DRAM</a>.
 
−
It offered faster access to data located within the same row. </font></p>
 
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<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="edo"></a>EDO (<b>Extended
 
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Data Out</b>)</font></h4>
 
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<p align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Newer
 
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than <a href="#dram">DRAM</a> (1995) and requires only <strong>one
 
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CPU wait state.</strong> You can gain a 10 to 15% improvement in
 
−
performance with EDO memory.</font></p>
 
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<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="bedo"></a>BEDO (<b>Burst
 
−
Extended Data Out</b>)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> A step up from the
 
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EDO chips. It requires <strong>zero wait states</strong> and provides
 
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at least another 13 percent increase in performance.</font></p>
 
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<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
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face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="sdram"></a>SDRAM (<b>Static
 
−
RAM</b>)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Introduced in late
 
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1996, retains memory and does not require refreshing. It synchronizes
 
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itself with the timing of the CPU. It also takes advantage of <a
 
−
href="#interleave">interleaving</a> and burst mode functions. SDRAM is
 
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faster and more expensive than <a href="#dram">DRAM</a>. It comes in
 
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speeds of 66, 100, 133, 200, and 266MHz.</font></p>
 
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<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
name="ddrsdram"></a>DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM)</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Allows transactions
 
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on both the rising and falling edges of the <a href="#clock">clock
 
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cycle</a>. It has a <a href="#bus">bus</a> clock speed of 100MHz and
 
−
will yield an effective data transfer rate of 200MHz.</font></p>
 
−
<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Direct
 
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Rambus</font></h4>
 
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<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Extraordinarily
 
−
fast. By using <b><a href="#clock">doubled clocked</a></b> provides a
 
−
transfer rate up to 1.6GBs yielding a 800MHz speed over a narrow 16 bit
 
−
bus.</font></p>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font color="#006600"
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#cache">Cache</a> RAM</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This is where <a
 
−
href="#sram">SRAM</a> is used for storing information required by the
 
−
CPU. It is in kilobyte sizes of 128KB, 256KB, etc.</font></p>
 
−
<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Other
 
−
Memory Types</font></h4>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VRAM
 
−
(<b>Video RAM</b>)</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> VRAM is a video
 
−
version of <a href="#fpm">FPM</a> and is most often used in video
 
−
accelerator cards. Because it has two ports, It provides the extra
 
−
benefit over <a href="#dram">DRAM</a> of being able to execute
 
−
simultaneous read/write operations at the same time. One channel is
 
−
used to refresh the screen and the other manages image changes. VRAM
 
−
tends to be more expensive.</font></p>
 
−
<h4><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Flash Memory</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This is a
 
−
solid-state, nonvolatile, rewritable memory that functions like RAM and
 
−
a hard disk combined. If power is lost, all data remains in memory.
 
−
Because of its high speed, durability, and low voltage requirements, it
 
−
is ideal for digital cameras, cell phones, printers, handheld
 
−
computers, pagers and audio recorders.</font></p>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Shadow
 
−
RAM</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">When your computer
 
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starts up (boots), minimal instructions for performing the startup
 
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procedures and video controls are stored in ROM (Read Only Memory) in
 
−
what is commonly called BIOS. ROM executes slowly. Shadow RAM allows
 
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for the capability of moving selected parts of the BIOS code from ROM
 
−
to the faster RAM memory.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<h2><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#top"><img
 
−
src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0" height="16"
 
−
width="17"></a> <a name="evolution"></a><font color="#003399">Evolution
 
−
of Memory</font></font></h2>
 
−
<table border="1" bordercolor="#003399" cellpadding="0"
 
−
cellspacing="0" width="100%">
 
−
<tbody>
 
−
<tr bgcolor="#003399">
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><font color="#ffffff">Year
 
−
Introduced</font></b></font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><font color="#ffffff">Technology</font></b></font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><font color="#ffffff">Speed
 
−
Limit</font></b></font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1987</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FPM</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">50ns</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1995</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EDO</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">50ns</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1997</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PC66 SDRAM</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">66MHz</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1998</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PC100 SDRAM</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">100MHz</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1999</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">RDRAM</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">800MHz</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1999/2000</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PC133 SDRAM</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">133MHz</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2000</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DDR SDRAM</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">266MHz</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
</tbody>
 
−
</table>
 
−
<h3><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#top"><img
 
−
src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0" height="16"
 
−
width="17"></a> <a name="error"></a><font color="#003399">Error
 
−
Checking</font></font></h3>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In order to ensure
 
−
that memory is working correctly, data integrity, there are two primary
 
−
means - parity and error correction code (ECC) or no checking at all -
 
−
non-parity.</font></p>
 
−
<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Parity</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This is the most
 
−
common used method. It can detect errors, but not correct them.</font></p>
 
−
<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ECC
 
−
(Error Correction Code)</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ECC can detect and
 
−
correct single-bit errors. It is used in high-end PC's and servers.</font></p>
 
−
<h4><font color="#006600" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Non-Parity</font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Because there has
 
−
been an increased quality of memory components and an infrequency of
 
−
errors, more and more manufacturers do no include error checking
 
−
capabilities. This also lowers the cost of the PC.</font></p>
 
−
<h3><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#top"><img
 
−
src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0" height="16"
 
−
width="17"></a> <a name="speed"></a><font color="#003399">Speed -
 
−
Access Time, Megahertz (MHz), Bytes Per Second</font></font></h3>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Prior to <a
 
−
href="#sdram">SDRAM</a>, speed was expressed in terms of<b> nanoseconds</b>
 
−
(ns). This measured the amount of time it takes the module to deliver a
 
−
data request. <font color="#ff0000">Therefore, the lower the
 
−
nanosecond speed, the faster.</font> Typical speeds were 90, 80, 70 and
 
−
60ns. Older 486 machines may have 80 or 90. More recent Pentiums will
 
−
have 60 or 70.</font></p>
 
−
<p><font color="#ff0000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Often,
 
−
the last digit of a memory part number will represents the speed such
 
−
as -6 = 60ns</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</font></p>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#sdram">SDRAM</a>
 
−
speed is measured in <b>megahertz (MHz)</b>. Speed markings on the
 
−
memory chips may still specific nanoseconds, but in this case in
 
−
represents the number of nanoseconds between clock cycles. To add to
 
−
the confusion the markings on t he chips don't match the Mhz value.
 
−
Here is a conversion chart.</font></p>
 
−
<table border="1" bordercolor="#003399" cellpadding="0"
 
−
cellspacing="0" width="100%">
 
−
<tbody>
 
−
<tr bgcolor="#003399">
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><font color="#ffffff">MHz Speed</font></b></font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><font color="#ffffff">Total
 
−
Clock Cycles per Second</font></b></font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><font color="#ffffff">Divide by
 
−
1 billions to get nanoseconds per clock speed.</font></b></font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">66</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">66,000,000</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">15</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">100</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">100,000,000</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">10</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">133</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">133,000,000</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td>
 
−
<div align="center"><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">8</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
</tbody>
 
−
</table>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">To calculate <b>bytes
 
−
per second</b> you need to know the <b>Bus Width</b> and <b>Bus Speed</b>
 
−
of your PC. The first thing to remember is <font color="#ff0000">8-bits
 
−
= 1 byte</font>. If you have a 64-bit bus, than 8 bytes of information
 
−
can be transferred at one time. (64 / 8 bits = 8 bytes)</font></p>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">If your bus speed is
 
−
100Mhz (100 million clock cycles per second) and the bus width is 1
 
−
byte wide, the speed is 100 MB's per second. With a 64-bit width, the
 
−
speed is 800 MBs per second (64 / 8 * 100,000,000)</font></p>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Rambus modules are
 
−
measured in megabytes per second. Rambus modules are either 400 or
 
−
300Mhz. Because they send two pieces of information every clock cycle,
 
−
you get 800 or 600Mhz. They have a 16-bit bus width or 2 bytes (16/8).
 
−
The 400Mhz module speed is 1600MB a second or 1.6GB a second.
 
−
(400,000,000 * 2) * 2. The 300Mhz module provides 1.2GBs a second.</font></p>
 
−
<h3><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#top"><img
 
−
src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0" height="16"
 
−
width="17"></a> <font color="#000080"><a name="adding">Adding Memory</a></font></font></h3>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">If you are running
 
−
Windows 95&nbsp; or 98, a minimum of 16 MBs of memory is necessary. If
 
−
you have several applications open at once, you will find by increasing
 
−
your memory, everything will run faster. Currently the cost for adding
 
−
additional memory is very low. Installation of memory is also fairly
 
−
simple. It does not require any reconfiguration.<strong>The difficult
 
−
part is determining what type of memory you need.</strong></font><font
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><em><font color="#009900"><br>
 
−
</font></em></font></p>
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
href="#Type">Type</a> | <a href="#Sockets">Socket</a> | <a
 
−
href="#Amount">Amount</a></font></p>
 
−
<div align="left"> </div>
 
−
<p align="center"><font color="#009900"
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">More information on memory
 
−
determination...</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><em><font
 
−
color="#009900"><br>
 
−
</font></em><a href="#inside">Looking Inside</a> | <a
 
−
href="#manual">Check the Manual</a> | <a href="#identification">Identification</a>
 
−
| <a href="#notsure">Still not sure</a></font></p>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
href="#adding"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" border="0"
 
−
height="16" width="17"></a> <a name="Type">Type</a></font></h4>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<ul>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a
 
−
href="#fpm">FPM</a></strong> – Fast Page - If you have a 486, you
 
−
probably have FPM</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a
 
−
href="#edo">EDO</a> </strong>– Extended Data Out - If you have an
 
−
early Pentium system, you probably have EDO</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a
 
−
href="#sdram">SDRAM</a> </strong> - If you have a Pentium or Celeron
 
−
system purchased in 1999, you probably have SDRAM</font></li>
 
−
</ul>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
href="#adding"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" border="0"
 
−
height="16" width="17"></a> <a name="Sockets">Sockets</a></font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Memory modules
 
−
plug into a socket on the motherboard. There are three socket types. </font>
 
−
</p>
 
−
<ul>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a
 
−
href="#simm">SIMM</a></strong> – <strong>30 pin</strong> – 3 inches
 
−
in length</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a
 
−
href="#simm">SIMM</a> – 72 pin</strong> – 4 inches in length</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a
 
−
href="#dimm">DIMM</a></strong> – <strong>168 pin</strong> – 5 inches
 
−
in length</font></li>
 
−
</ul>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Most older 486
 
−
machines will use 30 pin modules. Later model 486 and Pentium machines
 
−
will probably use 72 pin modules. More recent Pentium machines may have
 
−
168 pin.</font></p>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
href="#adding"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" border="0"
 
−
height="16" width="17"></a> <a name="Amount">Amount</a></font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Memory sizes
 
−
increase by the power of 2. This results in sizes of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
 
−
32, 64, 128, 256 MBs.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<ul>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">On some older 486
 
−
machines, one memory module can be added at a time.</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">On most Pentium
 
−
machines, modules must be added in pairs. Each pair must be of the same
 
−
size</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <a href="#sdram">SDRAM</a>
 
−
modules can be added one at a time.</font></li>
 
−
</ul>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">For example, if
 
−
you have 8 MBs of memory on a Pentium, you have two 4 MB modules. To
 
−
increase to 16 MBs, you need to add two more 4 MB modules. To increase
 
−
to 24 MBs, you need to add two 8 MB modules.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
href="#adding"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" border="0"
 
−
height="16" width="17"></a> <a name="inside">Looking Inside</a></font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Now that you know
 
−
the parameters, how do you determine which type you need? Looking
 
−
inside the computer will not provide all of the information. It will
 
−
confirm how many modules you currently have. You can also confirm the
 
−
type and quantity of open sockets. If you only have four sockets and
 
−
each socket contains a module, you will have to replace some of the
 
−
existing memory modules.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
href="#adding"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" border="0"
 
−
height="16" width="17"></a> <a name="manual">Check the Manual</a></font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The other place to
 
−
find the correct information is your owner’s manual. The manufacturer
 
−
should have listed the type of memory required. You will need to
 
−
determine the parity and speed.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
href="#adding"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" border="0"
 
−
height="16" width="17"> </a><a name="identification">Identification</a></font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Now that you have
 
−
the necessary information, you find an ad for memory and still you may
 
−
not be able to determine which modules you need. Why? Because the
 
−
computer industry thrives on confusion and abbreviations. Here’s how to
 
−
interpret the coding scheme.</font></p>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h5 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">30
 
−
pin modules</font></h5>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><em>For 30 pin
 
−
modules you will see something like</em> </font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<ul>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1 x 9-60</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4 x 9-70</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4 x 8-70</font></li>
 
−
</ul>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The <strong>first
 
−
number</strong> is the size in MB’s. In our example this would be 1MB
 
−
or 4MB.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The <strong>second
 
−
number </strong>represents parity. The value 9 represents parity and 8
 
−
represents non-parity. (Of course that makes a lot of sense!) The 9 or
 
−
8 also identifies that it is a 30 pin module.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The <strong>third
 
−
value</strong> represents the speed.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h5 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">72
 
−
pin modules</font></h5>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><em>For 72 pin
 
−
modules you will see something like</em> </font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<ul>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1 x 32-60</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2 x 32-70</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4 x 36-60</font></li>
 
−
<li><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">8 x 36-70</font></li>
 
−
</ul>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Just like the
 
−
30 pin modules, the <strong>first value </strong>represents the size,
 
−
EXCEPT it only represents &frac14; of the total memory size. Don’t ask
 
−
why, just accept it. So the value of 4 represents a 16 MB (4 x 4)
 
−
module. A value of 8 represents a 32 MB (4 x 8) module.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The <strong>second
 
−
value</strong>, again just like the 30 pin, represents parity and the
 
−
number of pins. 36 is used for parity and 32 for non-parity. You aren’t
 
−
asking why again, are you?</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The <strong>third
 
−
value</strong> represents the speed, the same as the 30 pin.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
<h4 align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a
 
−
href="#adding"><img src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" border="0"
 
−
height="16" width="17"></a> <a name="notsure">Still not sure</a></font></h4>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">If you still are
 
−
not sure what type of memory you need, call the manufacturer or call
 
−
us. We have a database of about 90% of all manufactured computers that
 
−
can provide us with the type of memory and upgrade options. You will
 
−
need to provide the manufacturer and model of your PC.</font></p>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
<h3><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#top"><img
 
−
src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0" height="16"
 
−
width="17"></a> <font color="#000080"><a name="recommended">Recommended
 
−
Memory</a></font></font></h3>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">To help you
 
−
determine the amount of minimum recommended memory for different
 
−
versions of Windows, we have prepared this handy chart.</font> </p>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><font
 
−
color="#ff0000">Bottom Line - The more memory the better</font></b></font></p>
 
−
<div align="center">
 
−
<center>
 
−
<table bordercolordark="#FFCC33" bordercolorlight="#FFCC33"
 
−
style="width: 100%;" border="2" bordercolor="#003399" cellpadding="0"
 
−
cellspacing="0">
 
−
<tbody>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td
 
−
style="width: 63%; vertical-align: top; background-color: rgb(153, 153, 255);">
 
−
<p align="center"><font color="#ffffff"
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b>User Type</b></font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td style="background-color: rgb(153, 153, 255);"
 
−
valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font color="#ffffff"
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b>Win 3.x </b></font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td style="background-color: rgb(153, 153, 255);"
 
−
valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font color="#ffffff"
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b>Windows 95 or 98 </b></font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td style="background-color: rgb(153, 153, 255);"
 
−
valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font color="#ffffff"
 
−
face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b>Windows NT </b></font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word
 
−
processing, E-mail, and data entry</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">12-24</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">16-24</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">32-40</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" height="6" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<p align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fax/communications,
 
−
database administration, spreadsheets, and more than 2 applications
 
−
open at a time</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td height="6" valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">24-32</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td height="6" valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">24-32</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td height="6" valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">40-48</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Complex
 
−
documents, accounting, business graphics, presentations, and network
 
−
connectivity</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">32-48</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">32-48</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">48-64</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proposals,
 
−
reports, spreadsheets, business graphics, databases, scheduling, and
 
−
presentations</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">24-32</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">32-48</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">32-48</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Complex
 
−
presentations, sales/market analysis, project management, and Internet
 
−
access</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">32-48</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">48-64</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">48-64</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Statistical
 
−
applications, large databases, research/technical analysis, complex
 
−
presentations, video conferencing, and network connectivity</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">48-64</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">64-96</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">64-96</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Page
 
−
layout, 2-4 color line drawings, simple image manipulation, and simple
 
−
graphics</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">48-64</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">64-96</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">64-96</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2D
 
−
CAD, multimedia presentations, simple photo-editing, and web development</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">64-96</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">96-128</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">96-128</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
<tr>
 
−
<td align="left" valign="top" width="63%">
 
−
<div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Animation,
 
−
complex photo-editing, real-time video, 3D CAD, solid modeling, finite
 
−
element analysis, and network connectivity</font></div>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="11%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">96-256</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">128-256</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
<td valign="top" width="13%">
 
−
<p align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
 
−
size="2">128-256</font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
</tbody>
 
−
</table>
 
−
</center>
 
−
</div>
 
−
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="#top"><img
 
−
src="hhmemory_files/uparrow.gif" alt="top" border="0" height="16"
 
−
width="17"></a> </font> </p>
 
−
</td>
 
−
</tr>
 
−
</tbody>
 
−
</table>
 
−
</div>
 
−
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−
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−
</body>
 
−
</html>
 

Latest revision as of 16:55, 20 June 2006

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